STRUCTURE OF MERCURY ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ' ' '( September 2014) ' Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ”(2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I present the electromagnetic laws governing the nuclear structure, but a student of Einstein (Dr Th. Kalogeropoulos ) criticised my discovery of nuclear force and structure by believing that the nuclear structure is due to the invalid relativity. In fact, here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. There are seven stable isotopes of '''mercury (Hg) with Hg-202 being the most abundant (29.86%). The longest-lived radioisotopes are Hg-194 with a half-life of 444 years, and Hg-203 with a half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than a day. Hg-199 and Hg-201 are the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having spins of 1/2 and 3/2 respectively. Mercury-180, producible from thallium-180, was found in 2010 to be capable of an unusual form of spontaneous fission. The fission products are krypton-80 and ruthenium-100. Since mercury is heavier than Osmium we conclude that its structure consists of 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins. Similarly all heavier nuclei than osmium have 8 horizontal planes able to give more blank positions than those of Osmium. For example the Pb-208 with 8 horizontal planes has 44 blank positions able to receive 44 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron. You can see in Fig-7d the 8 horizontal planes of Pb-208 in my published paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism”. ' '''The core of mercury , the Hg-160, with 80 protons and 80 neutrons (even number) forms a structure of high symmetry giving the 7 stable isotopes. In general, since the additional p80n80 is a vertical system with S =0, the structure of Hg-160 (core) has S =0 with 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins . Moreover two horizontal squares of opposite spins like the -HSQ and +HSQ exist under and over the structure of the 8 horizontal planes. They give also S = 0, because the two deuterons of the down horizontal square (-HSQ) have S = -2 and the two deuterons of the up horizontal square (+HSQ) have S = +2. Of course several protons of such a core form blank positions able to receive 44 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions in the heavier stable Hg-204. On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the stable Hg-204 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' '''STRUCTURE OF Hg-172, Hg-174, Hg-176, HG-178, Hg-180, Hg-182, Hg-184, Hg-186, Hg-188, Hg-190, Hg-192, Hg-194 Hg-196, Hg-198, Hg-200, Hg-202, Hg-204, Hg-206, Hg-208 AND Hg-210 WITH S =0 In this group of even number of extra neutrons including the stable structures of Hg-196, Hg-198, Hg-200, Hg-202, and Hg-204 with S =0 the structure of the unstable nuclides with S=0 is based also on the structure of Hg-160 (core) with S =0. For example the unstable Hg-194 with S= 0 has 34 extra neutrons of opposite spins. These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number with respect to the large number of pp repulsions of long range cannot give sufficient binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of Hg-196, Hg-198, Hg-200, Hg-202, and Hg-204 with S =0 the greater number of extra neutrons gives sufficient binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Whereas in the unstable Hg-206, Hg-208 and Hg-210 with S=0 the more extra neutrons than those of the stable Hg-204 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' STRUCTURE OF Hg-183, Hg-185, Hg-193, Hg-195, Hg-197, Hg-199, and Hg-205 WITH S = -1/2 The structures of the above nuclides with odd number of extra neutrons (including the stable structure of Hg-199 with S = -1/2) are based on the same structure of Hg-160 (core) having S =0. For example the unstable Hg-197 with S = -1/2 of 37 extra neutrons has 18 extra neutrons of positive spins and 19 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = 0 +18(+1/2) + 19(-1/2) = -1/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number with respect to the large number of pp repulsions of long range cannot give sufficient binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of Hg-199 with S= -1/2 the greater number of extra neutrons gives sufficient binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Whereas in the unstable structure of Hg-205 the 6 more extra neutrons than those of the stable Hg-199 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. STRUCTURE OF Hg-171, Hg-173, Hg-175, Hg-177, Hg-179, Hg-181, Hg-187, Hg-189, Hg-191, Hg-201, AND Hg-203 ''' After a careful analysis I found that the structures of such unstable nuclides with odd number of extra neutrons including the stable Hg-201 with S =-3/2 are based on another structure of the Hg-160 (core) having S = -2 . In this case the one deuteron of the up square (+HSQ) changes the spin from S =+1 to S =-1 giving S = -2, because it goes to the down horizontal square (-HSQ) for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the down square. Under this condition the unstable Hg-191 with S = -3/2 of 31 extra neutrons has 16 extra neutrons of positive spins and 15 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -2 + 16(+1/2) + 15(-1/2) = -3/2 Whereas the unstable Hg-203 with S = -5/2 of 43 extra neutrons has 21 extra neutrons of positive spins and 22 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -2 + 21(+1/2) + 22(-1/2) = -5/2 This unstable nuclide has 2 extra neutrons more than those of the stable Hg-201. So in the absence of blank positions they make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. '''STRUCTURE OF Hg-207 WITH S = +9/2 After a careful analysis I found that the structure of Hg-207 is based on another structure of Hg- 160 (core) having S = +4. In this case the two deuterons of -HSQ change their spins from S = -2 to S =+2 giving S = +4. Particularly they go to +HSQ for making horizontal bonds with the two deuterons of the up square. Under this condition the unstable Hg-207 with S = +9/2 of 47 extra neutrons has 24 extra neutrons of positive spins and 23 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = +4 + 24(+1/2) + 23(-1/2) = +9/2 This unstable isotope has 3 extra neutrons more than those of the stable Hg-204. So in the absence of blank positions they make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. Category:Fundamental physics concepts